Pakistan, the second-largest Muslim nation in the world, has a complex relationship with its religious minorities. Although these communities—Christians, Hindus, Ahmadis, Dalits, and Shi’ites—constitute a small portion of the total population (around 4%), their presence has sparked both academic and popular debates around citizenship, social belonging, and religious identity. The situation of religious minorities in Pakistan highlights a larger global discourse on the challenges of nationalism, post-colonial state-building, and the politics of exclusion.
The Meaning of “Religious Minority” in Pakistan
In Pakistan, the concept of “religious minority” is intricately linked with caste, especially for communities like Dalits and Christians, whose origins often stem from caste oppression. Unlike in Western contexts where minority status is primarily seen through the lens of religion, in South Asia, the identities of religious minorities are tied to historical, cultural, and social factors like caste. This dual lens of caste and religion offers a distinct view of how these communities are perceived and treated within Pakistan.
Discrimination and Violence Against Minorities
Pakistan’s minorities are frequently depicted as communities plagued by exclusion, marginalization, and violence. Issues they face include limited access to basic services like education and healthcare, and routine persecution such as forced conversions, accusations of blasphemy, and attacks on places of worship. The case of Asia Bibi, a Christian woman accused of blasphemy, became a global symbol of the precarious status of minorities in the country. Her case highlighted how accusations against minorities often have deeper roots in caste-based discrimination, as she was initially targeted for drinking from the same cup as Muslim women, a scenario that quickly escalated into blasphemy charges.
The Political and Legal Context: Blasphemy Laws
The introduction of blasphemy laws during the dictatorship of President Zia-ul-Haq in the 1980s marked a turning point in how minorities were treated in Pakistan. The laws, which were seen as a tool to protect the sanctity of Islam, have disproportionately affected religious minorities, particularly Christians and Ahmadis. These laws have also created a pervasive sense of fear among minorities, who risk severe punishment for actions or statements that may be perceived as disrespectful to Islam.
The blasphemy laws have drawn significant academic attention. Scholars like Linda Walbridge and Asad Ali Ahmed have pointed out the legal and social consequences of these laws on religious minorities, highlighting how they have contributed to the systematic marginalization and persecution of these communities. In the case of the Christian minority, their lives are often discussed in terms of the caste system, with scholars like Pieter Streefland focusing on the “double discrimination” faced by Christians, both on religious and caste grounds.
The Complex Identity of Pakistan’s Religious Minorities
While the dominant discourse on Pakistan’s religious minorities emphasizes their victimhood, there is a growing body of research that challenges this one-sided portrayal. For instance, some scholars have pointed out that the Christian community, especially Pentecostals, has shown resilience and activism in the face of adversity. These communities are not passive victims but are actively involved in social, political, and media work. Detlef Hiller’s study of the impact of Pentecostalism in Pakistan shows that some Christians now see themselves as part of a global religious movement, with a newfound sense of empowerment and confidence.
Moreover, minorities in Pakistan are not homogenous. Shi’ites, Ahmadis, Hindus, and Christians have different histories, identities, and relationships with the Pakistani state. Ahmadis, for example, have faced severe legal and social exclusion since being declared non-Muslims in 1974, with their experiences being shaped by political, religious, and legal factors that differ from those of Hindus or Christians.
Nationalism and Religious Identity
A major theme in the study of religious minorities in Pakistan is the intersection of nationalism and religious identity. Since its creation in 1947, Pakistan has grappled with its identity as a Muslim state. This struggle has often played out at the expense of religious minorities, whose existence complicates the idea of a homogenous Islamic identity. Ahmadis, in particular, have been targeted for their interpretation of Islam, as their beliefs challenge the mainstream Sunni orthodoxy.
Hindus and Christians, on the other hand, are often viewed through the lens of colonial history. Hindus are seen as remnants of India’s past, while Christians are linked to Western imperialism. Both groups are frequently treated as “others” who do not fully belong in the Pakistani nation-state. This othering is evident in the discourse surrounding Pakistan’s wars with India, where minorities are sometimes accused of having allegiances to India or the West.
The Role of the Pakistani State
The Pakistani state has played a contradictory role in the lives of religious minorities. While the state has at times extended protections to minorities, such as in the case of Shi’ites in the early years after Partition, it has also been complicit in their marginalization. The use of religious identity as a basis for citizenship has created a hierarchy where Muslims are considered full citizens, while non-Muslims are relegated to second-class status. This legal framework has been reinforced by discriminatory laws, such as the blasphemy laws, and social practices that deny minorities full access to the rights and privileges enjoyed by the Muslim majority.
Moving Beyond Victimhood: Agency and Resistance
Despite these challenges, religious minorities in Pakistan have not remained silent. Many have found ways to assert their identities and resist marginalization. From Christians engaging in political activism to Ahmadis maintaining a global diaspora network, these communities have developed strategies to navigate their precarious position in Pakistani society. These acts of agency challenge the dominant narrative that portrays them solely as victims and highlight their active participation in shaping their futures.
Conclusion
The story of religious minorities in Pakistan is one of complexity and contradiction. While they face systemic discrimination and violence, they also exhibit resilience and agency. Their experiences are shaped by a range of factors, including caste, nationalism, and the legal framework of the Pakistani state. Moving forward, it is essential to recognize the diversity within these communities and to approach their stories with nuance, acknowledging both their struggles and their contributions to Pakistani society.
Source: A summary of Religious Minorities in Pakistan: Identities, Citizenship and Social Belonging (tandfonline.com)
